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Unit Operations

Unit operations are the discrete, physical processing steps — distillation, absorption, extraction, filtration, crystallization, evaporation, drying, heat exchange, and reaction — that chemical and refining engineers assemble into process flowsheets. As a hard skill it requires understanding the governing transport phenomena (mass, heat, and momentum transfer) that size each operation, selecting equipment based on feed characteristics and product specifications, and troubleshooting performance deviations from design. Practitioners apply unit operations knowledge throughout the process life cycle: sizing a distillation column in preliminary design, diagnosing poor separation in an operating refinery, and optimizing energy consumption by improving heat integration across multiple unit operations.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy probes the local electronic environment of NMR-active nuclei — 1H, 13C, 7Li, 19F, 31P, and others — via their resonance frequencies in a magnetic field, yielding structural, dynamic, and quantitative information in solution and solid state. As a hard skill it requires selecting the appropriate pulse sequence and nucleus, preparing samples at correct concentration in compatible solvents or rotors, and interpreting chemical shifts, multiplicities, coupling constants, or solid-state lineshapes. Battery researchers apply NMR to elucidate electrolyte decomposition product structures, track lithium-ion coordination and transport in electrolytes, and characterize solid electrolyte interfaces and cathode ordering in operando experiments.

Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity is the practice of protecting computer systems, networks, and data from unauthorized access, theft, and damage — a critical hard skill as industrial facilities, battery plants, and mining operations become increasingly connected through IIoT, SCADA, and cloud platforms. As a hard skill it requires understanding threat modeling, network security architecture, identity and access management, vulnerability assessment, and incident response procedures relevant to both corporate IT and operational technology (OT) environments. Practitioners apply cybersecurity knowledge to defend production control systems from ransomware, secure remote access for distributed field teams, and comply with frameworks such as NIST CSF, IEC 62443, and ISO 27001 that govern industrial and critical-infrastructure environments.

Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES)

Optical emission spectroscopy (OES) measures light emitted by excited atoms or ions to determine elemental composition, used in both analytical chemistry (ICP-OES) and industrial metal analysis (spark/arc OES for alloys). As a hard skill it requires understanding excitation source selection, spectral line choice to avoid interferences, matrix matching of calibration standards, and routine maintenance of optical alignment and electrode wear in spark-source instruments. Battery researchers apply ICP-OES to quantify dissolved cathode metals in aged electrolytes and certify incoming raw material stoichiometry, while manufacturing engineers use spark OES to verify metal alloy composition in current collectors and pack structural components.

Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM)

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) — encompassing atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), and related modes — maps surface topography, mechanical properties, conductivity, and electrochemical reactivity at nanometer to atomic resolution by raster-scanning a sharp probe across a surface. As a hard skill it requires selecting the AFM operating mode (contact, tapping, PeakForce, KPFM, EC-AFM) for the property of interest, optimizing tip selection and scan parameters, and interpreting image artifacts from tip convolution and sample drift. Battery researchers apply SPM to image SEI formation in situ, measure electrode roughening and volume changes during lithiation, and map local conductivity and potential on composite electrode surfaces.

VBA

Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) is the macro language that runs inside Microsoft Office — battery quality teams still use it heavily for Excel-based test reports, automated PPAP documentation, and the one-off automations that bridge between an analyst's workbook and a vendor's data extract. As a hard skill it requires fluency in the Excel object model (Workbooks, Worksheets, Ranges, charts), the editor's debugging tools, and the discipline of writing macros that won't break when the source data shape shifts. Analysts apply this when automating the daily-yield rollup in Excel, when generating PPAP test report templates from raw cell-formation data, and when stitching Excel reports together for engineering reviews where Tableau and Power BI aren't available.

Potentiostats & Galvanostats

Potentiostats and galvanostats are the central instruments of electrochemical research, controlling the voltage or current applied to an electrochemical cell and measuring the resulting response for techniques including cyclic voltammetry, chronoamperometry, EIS, and battery cycling. As a hard skill it requires selecting and configuring the instrument for the cell's impedance and current range, designing experiments appropriate to the electrochemical question, and troubleshooting artifacts from contact resistance, reference electrode instability, or cable pickup. Battery researchers use potentiostats and galvanostats for every stage of the R&D cycle — from fundamental electrolyte screening to full-cell formation and cycle-life testing.

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